The Theory Of Attachment Proposed By John Bowlby And Mary...

The lectures, discussions in class, and chapter readings highlighted the importance of one of the characteristics of human nature, which is relationships and attachment. The course materials emphasized the critical role of relationship and attachment to the development of the children. The internship site also provided an opportunity for me to visualize different attachments and relationships between parent and child in action. As the chapter readings from the textbook explore different perspectives of relationship and attachment proposed by various theorists, the class discussions and lectures furthered my understanding and knowledge of parent-child relationships. In chapter 3, the theory of attachment proposed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth is explored. First, Bowlby’s theory of attachment was influenced by the ethological theorist, Darwin, Lorenz, and Tinbergen, who were previously mentioned in the chapter. Bowlby emphasized that behaviors found in animals, such as seeking close proximity from mothers to reduce the chance of becoming a prey, can also be found in toddlers. For example, Bowlby defined that actions such as following, crying out, and clinging found in children are displayed in order to keep close distance to parents is called attachment behaviors. Bowlby incorporates imprinting and instincts, which are ethological terms, to explain different phases of attachment. As the child develops through time, the attachment of child and parent deepens theirShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Love By Robert J. Sternberg1458 Words   |  6 PagesIt can be applied to early development studies of attachment theory, such as those by Joh n Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, and carried over to our studies of romance and love through the works of Robert J. Sternberg. Many of our class lessons have focused on cause and effect: childhood cause and adulthood effect. Thus it is not strange to note, Sternberg’s research, the triangular theory of love, is impacted by Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment theory. As we notice within each stage and style of relationshipRead MoreChildren and Young People’s Development.1105 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Bowlby’s attachment theory has had a huge influence on practice. â€Å"His work on maternal separation, attachment, and loss...has profoundly influenced practice†, Pedder, (2010:p130). Bowlby’s attachment theory talks about how important it is for a child to have a primary caregiver and how a child need’s to have a strong bond with their main carer. From Bowlby’s research and theory there has been a great influence on policies and practi ce as, has been stressed how important it is to provide childrenRead MoreAttachment Theory On The Relationships Between Parents And Children And Primary Caregivers2037 Words   |  9 PagesAttachment theory concentrates on the relationships between parents and children or parents and primary caregivers. According John Bowlby, the author of attachment theory, attachment is inborn and is as essential for survival as food, water, and air; it is an emotional, object specific relationship that develops towards a primary caregiver (Bowlby, 1969). Through series of experiments Bowlby explained the nature and the role of physical proximity of a child to a caregiver as a secure base for explorationRead MoreSecure Attachment Relationship Between Young Children And Their Families898 Words   |  4 PagesSecure Attachment Relationship The mother is usually the first and primary object of attachment for an infant, but in many cultures, babies become just as attached to their fathers, siblings, and grandparents. When infants are attached to their caregivers, they gain a secure base from which babies can explore their environment and a haven of safety to return to when they are afraid. Attachment begins with physical touching and cuddling between infant and parent. Some babies become secure or insecureRead MoreEssay on Foundations and Characteristics of Attachment Theory1105 Words   |  5 PagesAttachment Theory Attachment theory comes out of the work of John Bowlby. However, it finds its genesis in Freud’s Psychoanalysis. Bowlby himself was trained in psychoanalysis and became a qualified practitioner in the approach. In his early 20s, however, before he enrolled in medical school or in the Institute of Psychoanalysis, he worked with children with behavior problems. These two forces, these experiences, perhaps formed the foundation and later development of his Attachment Theory. SpurredRead MoreTheories And Research Studies Into Attachment1227 Words   |  5 PagesBiological, development or social approaches to psychology WIZ204 Evaluate theories and research studies into Attachment. Bowlby’s theory of attachment The theory of attachment was first proposed by a British psychoanalyst John Bowlby (1907-1990) who described it as a ‘lasting psychological connectedness between human beings’ (1988). According to psychologist Mary Anisworth attachment â€Å"may be defined as an affectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one-aRead MoreBowlby s Theory Of Attachment1431 Words   |  6 PagesPerhaps the most influential explanation of attachment was presented by John Bowlby who began developing his ideas in the 1940s. Bowlby was commissioned by the World Health Organisation to investigate whether young children were likely to be harmed if they are separated from their mothers in the early years. (Hayes, 1996). Bowlby (1951) reported that infants possesses an innate need to attach to one main attachment figure (this was usually the mother). According to Hayes (1996), this is a specialRead MoreThe Development of Attachment Essay793 Words   |  4 PagesThe Development of Attachment Psychological research can inform us about the development of attachments to a certain extent. Mary Ainsworth actually covered a definition explaining, how we know when an attachment has developed. This is; the infant tries to get close to and maintain that proximity with the caregiver, using a number of strategies to do so. E.g. clinging and signalling behaviours such as smiling, crying and calling. The fact she has outlined this definitionRead MoreSocial And Emotional Development : John Bowlby1402 Words   |  6 Pagesbond of attachment to another person is regarded as a foundation for successful social and emotional development. â€Å"It has been observed that children with secure attachments are more socially competent than those with insecure attachment† (Neaum. S. 2010). By the child having formed secured relationships it enables them to engage with the world with a sense of confidence and self-esteem. children who have secure attachments are also known to show more co-operative behaviour. John Bowlby was bornRead MorePsychology is not just common sense1300 Words   |  6 Pagesto disprove misconceptions and theories conceived out of said common sense. The majority of laymen believe that if an infant is not securely attached to its caregiver, it must have no sense of attachment at all. Moreover, they assume blindly that there will be no in-betweens. However, psychology shows that there is much more to it when it comes to attachment styles. There are in fact, three main types of attachment styles that make up the crux of the Attachment Theory, which will be explored in further

The Lackawanna Cutoff Free Essays

The Lackawanna Cutoff is an architectural work of art. It started a new era of Railroading and brought many new ideas to the table. The Cutoff was used for many things and was traveled by thousands of people throughout the years. We will write a custom essay sample on The Lackawanna Cutoff or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Lackawanna Cutoff was a 28-mile long; double-track mainline constructed by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad companies between the years of 1908-1911. The rail line ran from Port Morris, New Jersey to Slateford, Pennsylvania.According to Fred Stratton, from Fred’s interactive Erie Railroad website, The Cutoff founded the use of reinforced concrete on an enormous scale, as well as the use of massive cutting and filling. These methods would all later become standard procedures in railroad construction. Starting about 1905, more than a ten potential routes between Port Morris, New Jersey and Slateford, Pennsylvania were surveyed. The Lackawanna Cutoff was not one of the early possibilities surveyed. The Lackawanna Cutoff plan would run directly from Slateford, Pennsylvania, to Port Morris, New Jersey.Robert Savino, of the website GSMRRClub said, it was exactly 28. 45 miles in length. He said that the Cutoff plan reduced the maximum grade of 60. 2 feet per mile, which was the lowest of all the other surveyed routes, to 29. 04 feet per mile. The Cutoff required exceptionally heavy cuts and fills totaling over 15 million cubic yards, according to Fred Stratton. The Lackawanna Railroad company had to purchase over 760 acres of farmland for â€Å"borrow pits. † They had to scoop out the earth and gravel to a depth of twenty feet and hauled it up to the top of the embankments. This left large lakes where there were formerly level grounds. Concrete was used as the main material for the construction of signal towers, stations, and the highway crossings. There was not a single at-grade crossing on the Cutoff. According to Robert Savino, â€Å"at one time, ten steam shovels were at work on one fill alone, resembling work on the Panama Canal. † Five million pounds of dynamite were used in to break apart the hills to create the cuts. The Lackawanna Cutoff opened to service on the Christmas Eve of 1911. The Cutoff was built for speed. Not one curve on the whole track had a speed limit of less than 70 miles per hour. With curves having superelevation, the speed limit was later raised to 80 miles per hour. According to Fred Stratton, â€Å"No official record exists of over speed operations on the Cutoff, but â€Å"making up time† on the schedule when trains were late during the is reported to have occurred, with speeds in excess of 100 miles per hour having been attained on occasion. † By 1979, the Cutoff had been placed out of service. This meant that all maintenance on the line was stopped.Ironically, a company, Conrail, had just changed many of the crossties on the Cutoff in 1976, so the line was in the best shape it had been in nearly 15 years. The Lackawanna Cutoff was the first of its kind. It showed architects that anything was possible no matter how big the project. Sadly it is no longer in use, but you can still visit the historic sites it has left behind.Works Cited Stratton, Fred. â€Å"LACKAWANNA CUTOFF. † FRED’S INTERACTIVE ERIE RAILROAD PAGE. 19 Oct. 2006. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. Savino, Robert J. â€Å"The Lackawanna Cutoff – Then Now. † GSMRRClub. 12 Nov. 2009. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. How to cite The Lackawanna Cutoff, Papers

Cryptography Essay Example For Students

Cryptography Essay Cryptography is the science of encoding a message into a form that is unreadable and making sure only the proper people are capable of decoding the message back into its original form. This is usually done by using an encryption algorithm and a decryption algorithm (these two are often the same) and very often a secret key. Some of the early cryptographic systems did not use a key but instead kept the algorithm itself secret. The message sender uses the encryption algorithm and the key to encode the message, and then sends it to the receiver. The receiver then uses the decryption algorithm and the key to turn back the encrypted message into its original form and read it. If the message is intercepted on the way by a third party, they will only have unreadable data and will have gained nothing, unless they can figure out the decryption algorithm and obtain the key. This is why the key is never to be sent with the message, and has to be kept secret at all cost. If the key is compromise d, the sender and the encrypted data is no longer safe. The sender and the receiver then usually agree on a new key to prevent any further damage. In ancient Greece, around 550 Bc, messages were sent encoded to generals and could only be decoded using special staff keys. The key actually consisted of a physical object, which was applied on the message to get the decrypted version of it. In 50 Bc., one of the most simple cryptographic algorithms ever used was the one called the Caesar cipher, that was used by Julius Caesar to send messages to his generals. It consisted simply of switching each letter with the letter that was 3 letters further down the alphabet. For example Stephen would become Vwhskhq. To decrypt the message, the receivers would simply subtract 3 letters from each letter. This algorithm was later improved and called ROT13, where the letters could be shifted to any number between 1 and 25, and the number of letters shifted was the secret key. This very simple algorith m has been used on Usenet successfully to prevent people from inadvertently reading materials they might find offensive. Monoalphabetic substitution is another simple step away from the ROT13 algorithm. In this algorithm, each letter correspond to another letter but in no particular order. For example a = d, d = x, f = e, etc for all 26 letters. This made it much harder to break but also made fairly big keys that couldnt be memorized, since they consisted of 26 pairs of letters. In France during 1585, members of the kings court liked to send romantic or gossip messages to each other and encrypt them for safety, which becomes almost a necessity. Blaise de Vigenere came up with a poly-alphabetic substitution known as the Vigenere cipher. Basically, the algorithm would encrypt messages several letters at a time instead of letter by letter. For example ab = fh, th = sq. To simplify the huge keys it would require, the key was broken into a table and a key, the table was fairly big but the key was small enough to be memorized, and the table was useless without the key. This cipher wasnt totally safe but no t otally sure method to break it was developed before early in the 20th century. During World War I, American troops used native Indians to send messages over the radio, which could only be understood by other native Indians, and absolutely nobody in Germany could understand it. Also in World War I (most cryptographic algorithms are developed for wars), the Playfair algorithm is developed by the Allies, the key, like in the Vigenere cipher, is based on a little table and a short keyword, which were both changed periodically. The rules used with the table were much more complex and made it fairly safe. In World War II, however, the Germans gave up on abstract algorithms and came up with a physical encrypting/decrypting machine called the Enigma. It had different wheels of different sizes which were to be tuned differently depending on the date, the different turnings were listed in a little booklet that came with the machine. It wasnt broken before the Allies finally managed to capture enough pieces of the machine and collect enough data from operating errors by the Germans. Whitfield Diffie and Martin Helbman (1976) come up with the notion of Public Key Cryptography. In 1977, RSA (Ronald L. Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard M. Adleman) develops a Public Key algorithm based on large prime numbers that is theoretically impossible to break in a reasonable amount of time. Digital signatures were also made possible. 1991, PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) reuses an algorithm very similar to RSAs and gets posted on the web. Phil Zimmerman gets sued for both exporting cryptographic data and violating copyright laws. A new version of PGP is quickly developed which is different enough from RSA’s to be marketed. Because of its broadcasting on the web and the fact that it is freeware, PGP becomes one of the most widespread crypto systems. Now, we will quickly go over the concepts of public key cryptography and the global idea of how the RSA algorithm works (or PGP, they are al most the same), as well as digital signatures and â€Å"digicash†. I will also explain the general methods used to break most ciphers. I cannot however explain in detail because I cannot broadcast that kind of information without breaking the law which I will explain later. Public Key Cryptography The main problem with most cryptographic algorithms is that they are vulnerable to having the key exposed, and the key has to be agreed on by the sender and the receiver ahead of time. This means that when the sender and receiver exchange keys the first time, there is an opportunity for a third party to capture the key (or whenever keys are changed, in many cases keys were changed periodically for additional safety). This is exactly what public key cryptography avoids. The receiver of the message sends his public key to the sender. It is a public key, so it doesnt matter if the whole world knows the key or not. The key can only be used to encrypt data, not decrypt it. Then the sende r will encrypt the message with the public key and send it to the receiver. Once the receiver received the data, he takes his private key and uses it to decipher the data. Note that the private key was never transmitted by the receiver to anyone, so it is almost invulnerable to exposure. Also note that the public and private keys work in pairs. There is only one private key associated with each public key and vice versa, and ideally it is impossible to find one key from the other one. If someone intercepts the message he gets only an unreadable encrypted version of it, and using the public key or any other incorrect key used with the decryption algorithm will simply generate another series of numbers. If the receiver wants to reply to the sender, the sender has to have his own set of private and public key as well, and then the whole story goes on again the other way around. Ideally, there is even a phonebook of all public keys so that anybody could send an encrypted message safely to anybody else by simply looking up that persons public key. The RSA Algorithm The RSA algorithm is based on large prime numbers. One very interesting property of large prime numbers is that it is very hard to find out wether a very large number is a prime, and if it is not, finding out what numbers it is a product of can be very hard too. So if we take two (very) large primes and multiply them together, we get a number that is almost prime, and it will be very hard to find what two numbers were originally multiplied to obtain it. These numbers are used as the public and private keys, since it is very hard to find them. Theoretically, if the keys are chosen large enough, breaking the RSA algorithm would take several hundred years using all the biggest computers on the planet put together. RSA has offered a large amount of money to whoever comes up with a reliable and fast algorithm that can break their code. They still have all their money. Digital Signatures There remains one prob lem with passing all these messages: messages can be passed from sender to receiver safely, but the receiver has no means of determining who the message was actually from. For example, Bob could take Joes public key and send the following message to Joe: Youre a wuss. signed: Jack. Now, when Joe receives this message, he has absolutely no way of telling that Bob sent the message, and not Jack. This is where digital signatures come in handy. They allow a person to sign a message in a way that certifies that the message was actually sent by them. This is done by using one other interesting property of the private and public keys in RSA: they can be reversed in the algorithm and it will still work. For example, if you encode something using the private key, it can be decoded with and only with the public key. So when Jack sends something to Bob, he takes signed Jack and encrypts it with his private key (note that this in no way reveals what his private key is) and adds that at the end of his message as a signature. When Bob receives the message from Jack and decrypts it, he will obtain a small encrypted piece of data at the end of the message, which is the encrypted signature Jack put there. Bob can decrypt it with Jacks public key, and if a real message comes out of it, (i.e: not a series of apparently random numbers) then he knows that Jack was indeed the person that sent him the message. Usually, people add the exact time and date inside their signature to make sure each signature can be used only once. That is, once Bob has Jack’s signature at the end of the message, he cant send a message to Tom that says: Youre a BIG wuss, signed Jack and then paste the signature he just got from Jack at the end, because Tom will be able to see that there is a time difference in the signatures data and will therefore know that the message isnt really coming from Jack. Digital Money Digital Money is a form of money that can be used online (or anywhere else for what th at matters), with both safety and anonymity. Most digital money systems out there are closer to prototypes than actual widely used systems. Different digital money schemes probably exist, but this one works and is simple and safe. It is a simple application of digital signatures. The costumer sends a digital signature to whoever he wants to send money to by encrypting the data using his private key. (See the section above for details on digital signatures). In the signature, he/she includes the amount, the time, who the money goes to, a transaction number and whatever data is convenient to include. Very much like a check, really. When the person being paid receives the data, he/she can check it by decrypting it with the payers public key. He/she cannot modify it since it is encrypted, he/she cannot duplicate it since there is a transaction number, and finally the payment cannot be intercepted by a third party because it contains the public key of who the money goes to, which means i t will be worthless to anyone else. To guarantee confidentiality the digital signature is encrypted again before being sent with the receiver’s public key so that no third party can even find out who is being paid how much for what. There are even a little more complicated schemes that will allow total confidentiality. That is, even the person receiving the money will not know who is paying him because the transaction is handled directly through the â€Å"digicash† servers instead of between the buyer and the seller, although usually he will have to know in order to send the purchased product or information to his customer. Once the receiver has received the payment and checked it, he/she forwards the digital signature (encrypted with the â€Å"digicash† servers public key to guarantee confidentiality) to the â€Å"digicash† server, which checks it and transfers the corresponding amount between the two â€Å"digicash† accounts. The payment has been successfully made without ever revealing anyones private key or identity. Breaking Encoded Data Breaking encoded data is not easy, especially when dealing with complex encryption schemes. Here are some of the ways that are used to do it: 1. Stealing the key! (and dont let them know you have it). This is the simplest and most radical way of breaking into someones secret transmissions. 2. Guessing the key. Some people do tend to use their dogs name as a key and things like that, but this method is still much more efficient in movies than in real life. Usually this is more widely used by having the brute force methods test for common words first and then uncommon words. 3. Figuring out what algorithm is used. Knowing this will help a lot to break the cipher. 4. Brute force. This method is basically to try out all the possible keys until a correct result appears. It can be time consuming but even a slow computer can break all of the simpler ciphers instantly. There are smarter versions of this which search first through more likely values, or manage to cut out large chunks of the search space by elimination before actually trying everything. 5. Letter frequency analysis. Some letters appear more often than others in a normal text conversation. (e is the most frequent). So knowing this, if the cipher is a mono-alphabetic substitution, the letters can be found by matching their frequencies. For poly-alphabetic substitution, there are also letter frequency charts for short multiple letter strings. Look for human errors in the encoded transmissions. Often over a long series of messages, the user will make a mistake at least once, and the messed up data usually says a lot about what the key might be (especially people who tend to forget to encrypt a message when sending it, and then correct their error by encrypting it and sending it again, this gives the listening third party an encrypted and a decrypted version of the same text, which is usually very useful for find ing the key.) Note that RSA is very resistant to all of these methods since the keys are always safe and brute force will take several hundred years to work. The only human error that could actually endanger the cipher would be to broadcast the private key by mistake. Being able to encrypt our messages so that no one else can read them is great, but is this something we really need? Most of us do not need to have our transmissions encrypted, for the very simple reason that simply nobody is interested in intercepting and reading our electronic mail. Privacy of this type would be nice, but it definitely would not be worth going through the trouble of setting up everything that needs to be set up unless you have an important secret to keep. However if it came all set up with most operating systems then it would be convenient enough to use on a regular basis. Remember that because of the way the Internet is built, anyone connected to the Ethernet cable can read every single transmission made on the net. Thats not exactly private. Affirmative Action - History EssayBut there are people out there that need to keep important secrets and arent terrorists or criminals or the army. Most businesses will not be able to use the Internet as a means of communication as long as all their online communications are vulnerable to industrial spying. For businesses, the only safe way to communicate through a medium where each single bit they send can be listened to is to encrypt all of their communications with a cipher strong enough to resist breaking attempts from the other businesses. Another use of cryptography applied to business is the one used by the french television channel Canal+, which is broadcasted, but only the customers paying every month for the new keycode that corresponds to their decoder box will be able to decode the broadcasted programs. Without the use of encryption, the whole scheme of having a premium channel broadcasted through airwaves would be totally impossible. Finally, one of the most useful use s of cryptography that we might all find use for is â€Å"Digicash†. Without cryptography it is very close to impossible to implement a successful and convenient scheme for online money. And online money is something most online businesses and shoppers would love to have. Cryptography has its origins in wars and is therefore considered very much like a weapon because of the advantage it can give to one side or the other. Legally, any information about any kind of strong encryption is considered munitions (remember Michael Grubbs T shirt?). What this means is basically that it is illegal to export it to another country in any way. The FBI takes this matter extremely seriously. There are more or less equivalent laws in most other countries in the world as well. Illegal immigrants in France tattooed cryptographic data on their forearms so that it would be illegal to send them back to their country. Since the Internet is worldwide, posting any strong encryption information on the web is the same as exporting it, and is therefore illegal. Which means that right now encrypted Internet communications are more or less illegal as well. Also, the government is now trying to impose the Clipper chip as a standard on all computers, and banning all other forms of cryptography, in order to have a unique crypto system which it has the ability to break. The problem is, is that it is already too late to prevent these crypto systems from being exported. Most foreign countries already have knowledge of them, and there are many foreign business companies which use strong cryptography (including the RSA algorithm). So prohibiting exportation of these materials is purely and si mply useless. Furthermore, prohibiting US companies from being able to export strong cryptography results in loss of marketing opportunities for them. It also means that they wont be able to conduct safe, private conversations when dealing with foreign companies because they cannot use encrypted communications.